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Renaissance «REHN uh sons», was a great cultural
movement that began in Italy during the early 1300's. It
spread to England, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Spain,
and other countries in the late 1400's and ended about 1600.

The word Renaissance comes from the Latin word rinascere and
refers to the act of being reborn. During the Renaissance, many European scholars and
artists, especially in Italy, studied the learning and art of ancient Greece and Rome. They
wanted to recapture the spirit of the Greek and Roman cultures in their own artistic,
literary, and philosophic works. The cultures of ancient Greece and Rome are often called
classical antiquity. The Renaissance thus represented a rebirth of these cultures and is
therefore also known as the revival of antiquity or the revival of learning.

The Renaissance overlapped the end of a period in European history called the Middle
Ages, which began in the 400's. The leaders of the Renaissance rejected many of the
attitudes and ideas of the Middle Ages. For example, European thinkers in medieval times
believed that people's chief responsibility was to pray to God and concentrate on saving
their souls. They thought that society was filled with evil temptations. Renaissance
thinkers, on the other hand, emphasized people's responsibilities and duties to the society
in which they lived. They believed that society could civilize people rather than make them
wicked.

During the Middle Ages, the most important branch of learning was theology (the study of
God). However, many Renaissance thinkers paid greater attention to the study of
humanity. They examined the great accomplishments of different cultures, particularly
those of ancient Greece and Rome.

Medieval artists painted human figures that looked stiff and unrealistic and which often
served symbolic, religious purposes. But Renaissance artists stressed the beauty of the
human body. They tried to capture the dignity and majesty of human beings in lifelike
paintings and sculptures.

The changes brought about by the Renaissance happened gradually and did not
immediately affect most Europeans. Even at the height of the movement, which occurred
during the late 1400's and early 1500's, the new ideas were accepted by relatively few
people. But the influence of the Renaissance on future generations was to prove immense
in many fields—from art and literature to education, political science, and history. For
centuries, most scholars have agreed that the modern era of human history began with
the Renaissance.
Anthony Molho, "Renaissance," World Book Online Americas Edition,
http://www.worldbook...co/ar464720.htm, May 1, 2003.








Confucius «kuhn FYOO shuhs», (551?-479? B.C.), was the
most influential and respected philosopher in Chinese history.
From about 100 B.C. to the revolution of 1911, the ideas of
Confucius served as the single strongest influence on Chinese society. These ideas, which
are called Confucianism, stress the need to develop moral character and responsibility.

Chinese governments made Confucius' teachings the official state philosophy. Millions of
people in China—and in such nearby countries as Japan, Korea, and Vietnam—honored
Confucius in much the same way as other peoples honor founders of religions. For details
of the philosophy of Confucius, see Confucianism.

Confucius was born in the duchy of Lu, in what is now Shandong Province, China. His real
name was Kong Qiu. The name Confucius is a Latin form of the title Kongfuzi, which means
Great Master Kong. Confucius' parents died when he was a child. He failed in an attempt to
become an adviser to a wise ruler. Confucius had wanted the position so he could put into
practice his ideas for reforming society. Confucius received some minor official
appointments, but at his death he was largely unknown in China. His disciples spread his
teachings.

No book definitely written by Confucius exists. His disciples recorded his conversations and
sayings in a book called The Analects.
N. Sivin, "Confucius," World Book Online Americas Edition,
http://www.worldbook...co/ar129240.htm, May 1, 2003.








United Kingdom, History of the, is part of the long story of
all the peoples who have at one time or another lived in the
lands that make up present-day England, Scotland, Wales,
and Northern Ireland.

Several names are used to describe the area of the United Kingdom. The term United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland refers to England, Scotland, and Wales,
together with Northern Ireland. The name Britain, or Great Britain, and the word British
properly belong only to the political unit formed in 1707 by England, Scotland, and
Wales—the united kingdom of Great Britain. From 1801 to 1921, the United Kingdom also
included the whole of Ireland, not just the northern part. Many people, however, use the
term Britain as an informal name for the United Kingdom.

Over the centuries, the United Kingdom has developed its civilization from a blend of
different cultures. Prehistoric peoples, Celts, Romans, Angles, Saxons, Vikings, and
Normans have all helped to shape British history.

From the 1500's onward, what is now the United Kingdom made rapid economic, cultural,
political, and social progress and became a nation of world importance. The British
people developed democratic parliamentary government and pioneered the
technological advances of the Industrial Revolution.

From 1500 to 1900, the United Kingdom developed the largest and most influential
overseas empire in history. British civilization, laws, and culture shaped North America,
including Canada; Australia; India; New Zealand; the West Indies; much of South Asia
and Southeast Asia; and all the countries that now form the Commonwealth of Nations.
In the 1900's, the United Kingdom gave up most of its empire and helped many
countries achieve political independence. Even though the United Kingdom's world
influence has declined, the United Kingdom still ranked among the world's leading
industrial nations in the early 2000's. The Commonwealth lives on as a group of nations
linked by the legacies of British law and culture.

This article describes the history and development of the United Kingdom, dealing mainly
with the events of English and, later, British history. It covers United Kingdom, History of the
(Prehistoric Britain) (Roman Britain (50's B.C.-A.D. 400's)) (The early Middle Ages (400's-1000's))
(The High Middle Ages (1000's-1200's)) (The late Middle Ages (1300's-1400's)) (Widening horizons
(1500's-1600's)) (Years of progress (1700's)) (Years of transition (1800's-1830's)) (The Victorian
Age (1840's-about 1900)) (A changing place in the world (1900's)) (Recent developments
(2000's)). For further details on the history of Northern Ireland, see Ireland, History of. For
more on Scottish history, see Scotland, History of. For more on Welsh history, see Wales,
History of.
John S. Morrill, "United Kingdom, History of the," World Book Online Americas Edition,
http://www.worldbook...co/ar746953.htm, May 1, 2003.









Lincoln, Abraham (1809-1865), was one of the
truly great men of all time. He led the United
States during the American Civil War (1861-1865),
which was the greatest crisis in U.S. history.
Lincoln helped end slavery in the nation and
helped keep the American Union from splitting
apart during the war. Lincoln thus believed that
he proved to the world that democracy can be a
lasting form of government. Lincoln's Gettysburg
Address, second inaugural address, and many of his other speeches and writings are
classic statements of democratic beliefs and goals. In conducting a bitter war, Lincoln
never became bitter himself. He showed a nobility of character that has worldwide appeal.
Lincoln, a Republican, was the first member of his party to become president. He was
assassinated near the end of the Civil War and was succeeded by Vice President Andrew
Johnson. Lincoln was the first U.S. president to be assassinated.

The American people knew little about Lincoln when he became
president. Little in his past experience indicated that he could
successfully deal with the deep differences between Northerners and
Southerners over slavery. Lincoln received less than 40 per cent of the
popular vote in winning the presidential election of 1860. But by 1865,
he had become in the eyes of the world equal in importance to George
Washington. Through the years, many people have regarded Lincoln as
the greatest person in United States history.

During the Civil War, Lincoln's first task was to win the war. He had to view nearly all other
matters in relation to the war. It was "the progress of our arms," he once said, "upon
which all else depends." But Lincoln was a peace-loving man who had earlier described
military glory as "that attractive rainbow, that rises in showers of blood—that serpent's
eye that charms to destroy." The Civil War was by far the bloodiest war in U.S. history. In
the Battle of Gettysburg, for example, the more than 45,000 total casualties (people killed,
wounded, captured, or missing) exceeded the number of casualties in all previous
American wars put together.

Lincoln became a remarkable war leader. Some historians believe he was the chief
architect of the Union's victorious military strategy. This strategy called for Union armies to
advance against the enemy on all fronts at the same time. Lincoln also insisted that the
objective of the Union armies should be the destruction of opposing forces, not the
conquest of territory. Lincoln changed generals several times because he could not find
one who would fight the war the way he wanted it fought. When he finally found such a
general, Ulysses S. Grant, Lincoln stood firmly behind him.

Lincoln's second great task was to keep up Northern morale through
the horrible war in which many relatives in the North and South
fought against one another. He understood that the Union's resources vastly exceeded
those of the Confederacy, and that the Union would eventually triumph if it remained
dedicated to victory. For this reason, Lincoln used his great writing and speechmaking
abilities to spur on his people.

If the Union had been destroyed, the United States could have become
two, or possibly more, nations. These nations separately could not have
become as prosperous and important as the United States is today. By
preserving the Union, Lincoln influenced the course of world history. By
ending slavery, he helped assure the moral strength of the United
States. His own life story, too, has been important. He rose from humble
origin to the nation's highest office. Millions of people regard Lincoln's
career as proof that democracy offers all people the best hope of a full
and free life.

Life in the United States during Lincoln's Administration revolved around
the war. But almost miraculously, the nation also laid out a blueprint for
modern America during the war years. Economic development played an
important role in Lincoln's vision of America's future, in which all people
would have the right to rise in life. National banking legislation provided
for paper money as we know it today—and for federal controls to
assure sound banking and credit. U.S. tariffs on European manufactured
goods helped limit foreign competition and encouraged the growth of
American industry. The Administration encouraged labor unions. The
government's homestead laws gave free land to settlers. Immigration was encouraged, as
was the settlement of the West. Land was also granted for colleges that later became
great state universities and for the construction of the nation's first transcontinental
railroad. In addition, the nation's first income tax was levied to provide funds for the war.

Soldiers and civilians alike sang "The Battle Hymn of the Republic" or "Dixie." Winslow
Homer's painting Prisoners from the Front brought him his first fame. Patriotic literature of
the time included John Greenleaf Whittier's poem "Barbara Frietchie" and Edward Everett
Hale's story "The Man Without a Country." Lincoln and numerous other Americans chuckled
at the humorous writings of Artemus Ward and admired the patriotic prints of Currier and
Ives.
Gabor S. Boritt, "Lincoln, Abraham," World Book Online Americas Edition,
http://www.worldbook...co/ar324600.htm, May 1, 2003.









Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand «GAHN dee
or GAN dee, MOH huhn DAHS KUR uhm CHUHND»,
(1869-1948), was one of the foremost spiritual
and political leaders of the 1900's. He helped free
India from British control by a unique method of
nonviolent resistance and is honored by the
people of India as the father of their nation.
Gandhi was slight in build but had limitless
physical and moral strength. He was assassinated by an Indian who resented his program
of tolerance for all creeds and religions.

Gandhi's beliefs. The people called Gandhi the Mahatma (Great Soul). His life was guided
by a search for truth. He believed truth could be known only through tolerance and
concern for others and that finding a truthful way to solutions required constant testing.
He called his autobiography My Experiments with Truth. Gandhi overcame fear and taught
others to master fear. He believed in nonviolence and taught that to be truly nonviolent
required courage. He lived a simple life and thought it was wrong to kill animals for food or
for clothing.

Gandhi developed a method of direct social action, based upon principles of courage,
nonviolence, and truth, which he called Satyagraha. In this method, the way people behave
is more important than what they achieve. Satyagraha was used to fight for India's
independence and to bring about social change.

Gandhi's early life. Gandhi was born on Oct. 2, 1869, in Porbandar, India. His parents
belonged to a Vaisya (merchant) caste of Hindus (see Caste). Young Gandhi was a shy,
serious boy. When he was 13 years old, he married Kasturba, a girl the same age. Their
parents had arranged the marriage. The Gandhis had four children.

Gandhi studied law in London. He returned to India in 1891 to practice law, but he met
with little success.

In 1893, Gandhi went to South Africa to do some legal work. South Africa was then under
British control. Almost immediately, he was abused because he was an Indian who claimed
his rights as a British subject. He saw that all Indians suffered from discrimination. His law
assignment was for one year, but he stayed in South Africa for 21 years to work for Indian
rights.

Gandhi led many campaigns for Indian rights in South Africa and edited a newspaper,
Indian Opinion. As part of Satyagraha, he promoted civil disobedience campaigns and
organized a strike among Indian miners (see Civil disobedience). He was arrested many
times by the British, but his efforts brought important reforms. Gandhi also worked for the
British when he felt justice was on their side. He was decorated by them for paramedic
work in the Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902 and the Zulu Rebellion (1906).

Gandhi's independence campaigns. In 1914, Gandhi returned to India. Within five years,
he became the leader of the Indian nationalist movement.

In 1919, the British imperial government introduced the Rowlatt bills to make it unlawful to
organize opposition to the government. Gandhi led a Satyagraha campaign that
succeeded in preventing passage of one of these bills. The other was never enforced.
Gandhi called off the campaign when riots broke out. He then fasted to impress the people
with the need to be nonviolent. His belief in the cruelty of imperial rule was demonstrated
by the Amritsar Massacre of April 13, 1919. A British general ordered his men to fire on an
unarmed crowd, and almost 400 Indians were killed (see Amritsar Massacre). This made
Gandhi even more determined to develop Satyagraha and to win independence through
nonviolent resistance.

Gandhi began a program of hand spinning and weaving about 1920. He believed the
program (1) aided economic freedom by making India self-sufficient in cloth; (2) promoted
social freedom through the dignity of labor; and (3) advanced political freedom by
challenging the British textile industry and by preparing Indians for self-government.

In 1930, Gandhi led hundreds of followers on a 240-mile (386-kilometer) march to the sea,
where they made salt from seawater. This was a protest against the Salt Acts, which
made it a crime to possess salt not bought from the government. During World War II
(1939-1945), Gandhi continued his struggle for India's freedom through nonviolent
disobedience to British rule. He was jailed for the last time in 1942. Altogether, he spent
seven years in prison for political activity. He believed that it is honorable to go to jail for a
good cause.

Freedom and death. India was granted freedom in 1947. But the partition of India into
India and Pakistan grieved Gandhi. He was saddened also by the rioting between Hindus
and Muslims that followed. Gandhi had worked for a united country, and he had urged
Hindus and Muslims to live together in peace.

On Jan. 13, 1948, at the age of 78, Gandhi began his last fast. His purpose was to end the
bloodshed among Hindu, Muslim, and other groups. On January 18, their leaders pledged
to stop fighting and Gandhi broke his fast. Twelve days later, in New Delhi, while on his
way to a prayer meeting, Gandhi was assassinated. Nathuram Godse, a Hindu fanatic who
opposed Gandhi's program of tolerance for all creeds and religions, shot him three times.

A shocked India and a saddened world mourned Gandhi's death. The great scientist Albert
Einstein said of Gandhi: "Generations to come will scarcely believe that such a one as this
walked the earth in flesh and blood."
Raghavan Iyer, "Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand," World Book Online Americas Edition,
http://www.worldbook...co/ar216380.htm, May 1, 2003.









Hitler, Adolf (1889-1945), ruled Germany as dictator from
1933 to 1945. He turned Germany into a powerful war machine
and provoked World War II in 1939. Hitler's forces conquered
most of Europe before they were defeated in 1945.

Hitler spread death as no person has done in modern history.
"Have no pity! Act brutally!" he told his soldiers. He ordered
tens of thousands of those who opposed him to be executed, and hundreds of thousands
to be thrown into prison.

Hitler particularly persecuted Jews. He ordered them removed and killed in countries he
controlled. Hitler set up concentration camps where about 4 million Jews were murdered.
Altogether, Hitler's forces killed about 6 million European Jews as well as about 5 million
other people that Hitler regarded as racially inferior or politically dangerous.

Adolf Hitler began his rise to political power in 1919, the year after
World War I had ended. The German Empire had been defeated, and
the nation's economy lay in ruins. Hitler joined a small group of men who
became known as Nazis. He soon became their leader. Hitler and his
followers believed he could win back Germany's past glory. He promised
to rebuild Germany into a mighty empire that would last a thousand
years.

Many people did not take Hitler seriously. But his fiery words and
brilliant blue eyes seemed to hypnotize those who listened to him. Many
Germans believed he was their protector and friend. His emotional speeches made crowds
cheer "Heil, Hitler!" ("Hail, Hitler!" ).

Hitler became dictator of Germany in 1933 and quickly succeeded in regaining some
territories taken from Germany as a result of World War I. He threatened war against
Czechoslovakia in 1938 but was stopped by a combination of counterthreats and
concessions. His forces invaded Poland in 1939. Then Britain, France, Australia, New
Zealand, South Africa, and Canada declared war on Germany, and World War II began.

Hitler had a clear vision of what he wanted, and he had the daring to pursue it. But his
aims had no limits, and he overestimated the resources and abilities of Germany. Hitler
had little regard for experts in any field. He regularly ignored the advice of his generals
and followed his own judgment, even while Germany was being defeated in the last years
of the war. Finally, as United States, British, and Soviet troops closed in on the heart of
Germany, Hitler killed himself.
Peter Hoffmann, "Hitler, Adolf," World Book Online Americas Edition,
http://www.worldbook...co/ar258000.htm, May 1, 2003.









Stalin «STAH lihn», Joseph (1879-1953), was
dictator of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
(U.S.S.R.) from 1929 until 1953. He rose from bitter
poverty to become ruler of a country that covered
about a sixth of the world's land area.

Stalin ruled by terror during most of his years as
dictator. He allowed no one to oppose his
decisions. Stalin executed or jailed most of those who had helped him rise to power
because he feared they might threaten his rule.

Stalin also was responsible for the deaths of millions of Soviet peasants who opposed his
program of collective agriculture (government control of farms). Under Stalin, the Soviet
Union operated a worldwide network of Communist parties. By the time he died,
Communism had spread to 11 other countries. His style of government became known as
Stalinism and continued to influence many governments.

The Soviet people had cause to hate Stalin, and much of the world feared him. But he
changed the Soviet Union from an undeveloped country into one of the world's great
industrial and military powers. In World War II (1939-1945), the Soviet Union was an ally
of the United States and the United Kingdom against Germany. But Stalin sharply opposed
and, on occasion, betrayed his allies even before World War II was over. The last years
that Stalin ruled the Soviet Union were marked by the Cold War, in which many
non-Communist nations banded together to halt the spread of Communism.

Stalin had little personal charm, and could be brutal to even his closest friends. He seemed
unable to feel pity. He could not take criticism, and he never forgave an opponent. Few
dictators have demanded such terrible sacrifices from their own people.

After Stalin became dictator, he had Soviet histories rewritten to make his role in past
events appear far greater than it really was. In 1938, he helped write an official history of
the Communist Party. Stalin had not played a leading part in the revolution of November
1917 (October by the old Russian calendar), which brought Communism to Russia. V.I.
Lenin led this revolution, which is known as the October Revolution, and set up the world's
first Communist government. But in his history, Stalin pictured himself as Lenin's chief
assistant in the revolution.

Stalin died in 1953. He was honored by having his body placed
beside that of Lenin in a huge tomb in Red Square in Moscow. In
1956, Nikita S. Khrushchev strongly criticized Stalin for his terrible crimes against loyal
Communists. Later, in 1961, the government renamed many cities, towns, and factories
that had been named for Stalin. Stalin's body was taken from the tomb and buried in a
simple grave nearby.
Albert Marrin, "Stalin, Joseph," World Book Online Americas Edition,
http://www.worldbook...co/ar528360.htm, May 1, 2003.









Roosevelt, Franklin Delano «ROH zuh vehlt,
FRANK lihn DEHL uh noh», (1882-1945), served
as president for more than 12 years, longer than
any other person. He was the only president
elected four times. Roosevelt led the United
States through its worst depression and through
its worst war. He died just 83 days after
becoming president for the fourth time.

Roosevelt took office as president at the depth of the Great Depression.
About 25 percent of the workers in the United States had lost their jobs.
Many families had no money to buy food. Others had lost their homes
because they could not pay their mortgages. Millions of Americans
feared what would happen next. In Roosevelt's inaugural address, he
called for faith in America's future. "The only thing we have to fear is
fear itself," he declared boldly.

A new era in American history began under Roosevelt. He called his
program the New Deal. For the first time, the federal government took strong action to help
make the United States prosperous. Roosevelt said he wanted to help the average
American, whom he called the "forgotten man." He promised relief for unemployed
workers. He said he would aid farmers. Under his leadership, the government put stronger
controls on business companies than ever before. It spent billions of dollars on relief and
public works to "prime the pump" of business activity. Dozens of new government
agencies were set up. Many were known by their initials, such as CCC, TVA, and NRA.
Roosevelt himself became widely known by his initials, F.D.R.

Probably no other president since Abraham Lincoln has been so bitterly hated or so deeply
loved. Critics charged that Roosevelt's policies gave the federal government too much
power. They accused him of taking over many rights that belonged to the states under the
Constitution. Many Americans thought that government controls over business might
destroy the free enterprise system and lead to socialism. But millions believed that
Roosevelt was the friend and protector of the "common man." Their faith was the key to
Roosevelt's success in politics.

The start of World War II in 1939 tended to divide Roosevelt's presidency into two parts.
Until the German invasion of Poland that year, the government worked hard to end the
depression. The war then became the chief concern of Roosevelt and the United States.

Born into a wealthy family, Roosevelt entered politics because he believed it offered great
opportunity for public service. Before he was elected president, he served in the New York
state Senate, as assistant secretary of the Navy, and as governor of New York.

Roosevelt had a colorful personality. He was known for his friendly smile, flashing eyes,
and genial manner. He had two famous "trademarks." These were the glasses that he
wore clipped to the bridge of his nose, and the cigarette holder that jutted upward at a
jaunty angle from his mouth. He was a fine speaker, with a warm, pleasing voice.

People in all parts of the world admired Roosevelt for his personal courage. Although he
was crippled by polio at the age of 39, he refused to give up his career of public service. As
he struggled to regain the use of his legs, his physical appearance changed. As a young
man, Roosevelt had been slender and tall. After his illness, he became stocky and
heavy-set. Roosevelt could never again stand without help. But a little more than 11 years
after being stricken, he was elected president.

This article discusses Roosevelt, Franklin Delano (Early life) (Entry into
politics) (Crippled by polio) (Return to politics) (Roosevelt's first
administration (1933-1937)) (Roosevelt's second administration (1937-1941))
(Roosevelt's third administration (1941-1945)) (Roosevelt's fourth
administration (1945)).
James T. Patterson, "Roosevelt, Franklin Delano," World Book Online Americas Edition,
http://www.worldbook...co/ar474800.htm, May 1, 2003.